58 Third, the urge to void is a frequently experienced behavioral

58 Third, the urge to void is a frequently experienced behavioral state, and

generally increases with bladder distention in a complex manner. For example, at moderate bladder filling, urge to void appears to be under cognitive control and leads to a fluctuation of the conscious urge sensation. A recent fMRI study found significant brain activity associated with an increased urge to void in the insular cortex, frontal opercula, supplementary motor area, cingulate motor area, right posterior parietal cortex, left prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum.59 Fourth, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical anorectal continence is another urge-driven behavior that is under complex cerebral control A recent neuroimaging study showed that subjective sensation of discomfort increased during repeated rectal distension was associated with activation in the anterior cingulate gyrus, insula, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical thalamus, and

secondary somatosensory cortex. Moreover, voluntary contraction of the anal sphincter in response to anal distention was associated with activation of motor cortex and increased activity in supplementary motor as Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical well as insular cortex.60 Thus, these neuroimaging studies have in common the involvement of the interoceptive system in the expression of selleck chemicals CHIR99021 diverse urge-related behaviors. Imagery-based techniques are frequently used to elicit memory of drug-related craving experiences,61 and some have even argued that stress imagery testing procedures may function as provocative tests for stress-induced drug craving.62 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Several brain systems have been implicated in modulating the degree of drug-induced cravings. For example, the degree of drug-related craving by means of administration of presentation of conditioned stimuli has been related to activity in striatum,63 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical thalamus,64 anterior cingulate,65 inferior frontal cortex,66,67 and orbitofrontal cortex,68,70 but also with insula,71,72 amygdala,73 and cerebellum.74 For example, when viewing thenthereby videos that display cocaine-related

stimuli users experience craving, which is associated with increases in amygdala and anterior cingulate cerebral Batimastat blood flow relative to their responses to a nondrug video.75 Similarly, imagery-induced drug craving has been associated with bilateral activation of amygdala, insula, and anterior cingulate gyrus as well as the nucleus accumbens area.76 In alcohol-dependent individuals, cue-induced craving has been associated with activation in amygdala and hippocampal area as well as the cerebellum,77 but also visual and other limbic areas.78 Smoking-induced craving was associated with increased activation in left inferior frontal gyrus, left ventral anterior cingulate, and bilateral middle frontal gyrus.

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