In this study we report that the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-2, interferon (IFN)-γ and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α show a time-dependent increase upon ex-vivo bacterial, viral and fungal antigen stimulations. Furthermore, evidence is provided that this assay is sensitive to mirror stress hormone-mediated immune modulation in humans as shown either after hydrocortisone injection or after acute

stress exposure during free fall in parabolic flight. This in-vitro test appears to be a suitable assay to sensitively mirror stress hormone-dependent inhibition of cellular immune responses in the human. RXDX-106 cost Because of its standardization and relatively simple technical handling, it may also serve as an appropriate research

tool in the field of psychoneuroendocrinology in clinical as in field studies. Humans are continuously subjected to environmental challenges which affect the immune function according to the intensity of psychological and physiological stressors. Due to the complex nature of in-vivo immune responses, the delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin test has served as a standardized tool to monitor the overall status of the immune system by simultaneously placing six antigens and one diluent (as a negative control) intracutaneously into the forearm. With the DTH skin test it was possible to SB525334 research buy evaluate, to a certain degree, the extent of immunodeficiency, as seen in individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [1].

In addition to being used as a clinical investigative tool in immune deficiency states, the DTH skin test was also used widely to monitor immune function in states of psychological stress and psychiatric illness. Declines in immune function were found in subjects suffering from severe depression [2, 3], in Dolutegravir mouse crews wintering in the Antarctic [4, 5] and individuals experiencing perceived distress [6-9]. In 2002 this in-vivo skin test (multi-test CMI; Mérieux, Lyon, France) was removed from the market, in part because of the risk of antigen-sensitization when applied repeatedly to the same individual. After the DTH skin test was phased out, no such alternative tests were available to evaluate overall immunity. Standardized in-vitro methods such as the lymphocyte transformation test [10] and in-vitro cytokine induction [11] are used for the measurement of antigen-dependent T cell responses, but these tests are complicated in their performance and may not mirror the immune responses to the pathogenic spectrum that the DTH skin test was able to recall. Even though the complex skin reaction of the DTH skin test – which includes, e.g. cell migration – cannot be reproduced fully in a whole-blood in-vitro system, DTH reactions also seem possible to be reflected in blood tests [12, 13].