† indicates significant difference against control non-AZD2171 exercise group. # indicates significant difference against control exercise group. XO activity was shown in Figure 8. Muscle XO activity increased after exercise was not statistically significant (p =0.24). Figure 8 Effect of Rg1 administration on muscle XO activity in exhaustive exercised rats. Discussion The major finding of the study is that long-term oral Rg1 supplementation can strengthen antioxidant defense capability in skeletal muscle and attenuate the oxidative damage induced by an acute bout of exhaustive exercise. In particular,

exhaustive exercise-induced membrane lipid peroxidation was effectively eliminated in the skeletal muscle of rats, which see more pre-treated with Rg1. In line with this finding, decreased GSH/GSSG ratio after exercise was prevented in the Rg1 group. These results provide compelling

evidence that oral Rg1 supplementation can Elafibranor mouse protect sarcolemma against exercise-induced oxidative stress by enhancing antioxidant system of skeletal muscle. Minimizing of unwanted side reactions like lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation is essential in preserving normal function of cells, since all chemical reactions in human cells are under strict enzymatic regulation to conform a tightly controlled metabolic program. These are largely relying on maintaining normal structure of biomolecules against metabolic perturbation. However, increasing physical work unavoidably

increases the production of O2 ·− and hydroxyl radicals *OH, which consequently attack the membrane lipids and results in MDA formation [2]. Ginseng extracts has Teicoplanin been shown to decrease the MDA levels and muscle damage caused by eccentric exercise in rats [17]. As a major component of ginsenosides, Rg1 has been found to reduce the MDA levels in liver and brain of rats [18]. The present study adds to the current knowledge that Rg1 may be the key ginsenoside component, which contributes to the protective effect of ginseng against exercise-induced lipid peroxidation in skeletal muscle. Increased MDA levels confirm the increased of oxidative stress by exhaustive exercise. However, protein carbonyls as an indicator of protein oxidation were not significantly increased after exhaustive exercise. The previous reports on protein carbonyls after exercise show mixed results. For instance, protein oxidation in human blood was elevated after resistance exercise [19]. Another study showed that plasma MDA levels were inversely correlated with protein carbonyls under betamethasone-induced oxidative stress condition [20]. The possible reason for this discrepancy may be related to the differences in experimental design and model used. Alternatively, elevated protein degradation during prolonged exercise may affect the level of protein oxidation [21].