1997), or the animal should be shaved (Eriksson et al. 2005; Neubert et al. 2005b). The latter situation is not entirely physiological as some of the normal sensory information is transmitted through the facial hair. In 1978, Rosenfeld et al. designed a facial nociception device which was Panobinostat price mounted onto the skull of the animals and delivered heat to the cheek. The Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical responses measured were scratching or face-rubbing by fore or hind limbs. This apparatus, however, requires surgery to install the device and is clearly uncomfortable for the animal and has not been widely adapted. A more practical test, developed by Imamura et al. (1997), involves placing a rat in a restrainer

so that only the snout is visible for noxious radiant heat-beam stimulation, at the same time shielding the eyes animals from the heat light. With this apparatus, they showed significant decreases

in withdrawal latencies after a constriction of the IoN. In this set-up, the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical animals had to be thoroughly habituated to the apparatus before behavioral testing in order to avoid any stress-facilitated changes in behavior and analgesia. A similar contraption was reported by Ahn et al. (2009a) who induced neuropathic pain with an injection of the demyelinating agent LPA into the trigeminal ganglion of the rat. They restrained the rats in a Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cylindrical acrylic restrainer and applied heat stimulus using an infrared thermal stimulator (diode laser) placed 10 cm away from the vibrissal pad. However, they have failed to observe any differences in responses to this stimulus between the vehicle- Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and LPA-treated groups (Ahn et al. 2009a). This could be due to the nature of the model, which is more sensitive to mechanical stimuli. Other recent studies used infrared irradiation to thermally stimulate the face of mice and rats held by the investigator (Luiz et al. 2010) or of mice restrained in a plastic tube (Shinoda et al. 2011). Both groups, however, do not specify

the type of thermal source machine used and the restraint of the animal by the investigator is not Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical optimal (see above). Moreover, Shinoda and colleagues repeatedly anesthetized the animals in order to place them in the plastic tube for the behavioral Dipeptidyl peptidase testing. While behavioral procedures were performed 30 min after anesthesia, one cannot exclude some residual effects of the isofluorane. Several other studies using thermal stimulus have been reported using lightly anesthetized rats (Tzabazis et al. 2005; Niv et al. 2008; Cuellar et al. 2010); however, little more has been published in awake animals. Operant behavior paradigms A new type of mechanical and thermal stimulation has been proposed by the group of Neubert et al. They have developed a set-up which allows for the observation of operant responses to painful stimuli. In this paradigm, the rodent has a choice between receiving a reward (sweet condensed milk) or preventing receiving an aversive (painful) stimulus.