Consistent with studies of retina from other vertebrates, histamine was only found in retinopetal axons, which coursed extensively through the ganglion cell and inner plexiform layers. mRNA for all three receptors was expressed in the mouse retina, and immunohistochemical studies further localized HR1 and HR2. HR1 immunoreactivity was observed on dopaminergic amacrine cells, calretinin-positive ganglion cells and axon bundles in the ganglion cell layer. Furthermore, a distinct group of processes in the inner plexiform layer was labeled, which most likely represents the processes of cholinergic amacrine cells. HR2 immunoreactivity was observed on the processes and cell bodies of the primary glial cells of the mammalian

retina, the Muller cells. This

distribution of histamine and its receptors is consistent with a brain-derived source of histamine selleck compound acting on diverse populations of cells in the retina, including both neurons and glia. (C) 2009 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background. Cognitive impairment has been shown to predict falls risk in older adults. The ability to step accurately is necessary to safely traverse challenging terrain conditions such as uneven or slippery surfaces. However, it is unclear how well persons with cognitive impairment can step accurately to avoid such hazards and what specific aspects of cognition predict stepping ability in different patient populations.

Methods. Healthy older adults (NC), patients with Mild Cognitive QNZ Impairment with only memory impairment SRT1720 (MCI-EF) or memory and executive function impairments (MCI+EF) and early Alzheimer’s patients (AD) were timed as they performed a stepping accuracy test with increasing cognitive demand (Walking Trail-Making Test; W-TMT), which required stepping on instrumented targets with either increasing sequential numbers (W-TMT A) or alternating sequential

numbers and letters (W-TMT B).

Results. After accounting for age and baseline walking speed, the AD and MCI+EF groups were significantly slower than the NC and MCI-EF groups on the task with the highest cognitive demand. W-TMT B (interaction effect F=6.781, p < .0001). No group differences were noted on the W-TMT A task that was less cognitively demanding. Neuropsychological measures of executive functioning were associated with slower W-TMT B performance. whereas memory, visual attention and visual spatial skills were not (adjusted R(2) = 0.42).

Conclusions. Executive function is important for stepping performance. particularly under more complex environmental conditions.”
“The somatotopic map of the first nociceptive component in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) is still unclear. In this study, a CO2 laser was applied to the tail of the rat to induce nociception without the interference from large myelinated (A(beta)) fibers. Thus, only noxious fibers could be activated.