IRF-8 was originally identified as a repressor of IFN-stimulated response elements and through its ability to inhibit the transcriptional activation R788 of other IRFs [50, 51]. Yet, studies of human monocytes and murine cDCs found that IRF-8 promoted type I IFN production [35, 52]. Current findings show that IRF-8 is a strong negative regulator of CpG-driven IFN-β and IL-6 production by human pDCs (Fig. 4B). This is an important observation, as pDCs constitutively express high levels of IRF-8 [13] and IRF-8 KO mice

fail to generate pDCs [36]. Taken together, current findings demonstrate that IRF-8 expression plays a role in negatively regulating pro-inflammatory and IFN responses following TLR9 stimulation of pDCs. We are in the process of examining whether the elevated levels of IRF-8 in the nucleus of unstimulated pDCs (Fig. 2) reflect a constitutive role for IRF-8 in the regulation of gene activation and whether IRF-8 interacts with IRF-5. Several findings support the technical reliability of results from the knockdown experiments upon which these conclusions are largely based. First, no off-target (i.e. nonspecific) Atezolizumab manufacturer activity was detected

with any of the siRNAs tested (Fig. 3A and C and 4A, and Supporting Information Fig. 2A–C). Second, cells transfected with siRNA were not stimulated unless CpG ODN was added (in contrast to the report by Hornung et al. [34]) (Supporting Information Fig. 2D and E). Third, siRNA administration significantly reduced the level of expression of both mRNA and protein of the targeted gene (Fig. 3A and C and 4A, Supporting Information Fig. 2A–C). Finally, siRNA knockdown of MyD88 and TRAF6 blocked the induction of IFN-β and IL-6 mRNA by CpG-stimulated

pDCs, consistent with earlier reports (Fig. 3B; [15, 31, 32]). K” ODN triggered the rapid translocation of NF-κB p50 and p65 (RelA) from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in CAL-1 cells and human pDCs (Fig. 2D, 6, and 7). Interestingly, the knockdown of p105/p50 but not p65 significantly reduced IFN-β production (Fig. 3D), whereas both p105/p50 and p65 contributed to the induction of IL-6. Accumulating evidence indicates that IκBξ (also known as MAIL, a nuclear ankyrin repeat protein) is required for TLR-dependent upregulation of IL-6 [53, 54]. As IκBξ associates with both p50 and Adenylyl cyclase p65 [55], current findings suggest that eliminating either impairs IκBξ-dependent induction of IL-6. K” ODN induced the rapid nuclear translocation of both IRF-5 and NF-κB p50 (Fig. 2, 6, and 7). PLA, a technique used to identify protein–protein interactions under physiologic conditions, was employed to examine whether these transcriptional factors associated upon stimulation [40]. Only proteins in close proximity (<40 nM) are visualized by PLA, yielding results comparable to resonance energy transfer techniques (such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis).