While PPV23 would extend the number of serotypes covered in comparison with PCV13, the concern is that such potential benefit is offset http://www.selleckchem.com/products/epacadostat-incb024360.html by its detrimental effect on the immunogenicity generated to some of the serotypes
common to PPV23 and PCV13. Studies are urgently required to assess different PCV-based schedules at different ages and different levels of HIV-induced immunocompromisation. Pending such data, we recommend the use of PCVs for all booster doses of pneumococcal vaccine required following the primary series. Like other conjugate vaccines, the Hib vaccine is a subunit vaccine and poses minimal safety concerns, but data specific to HIV-infected children Selleck Osimertinib are limited. The theoretical concern highlighted earlier that T cell-dependent vaccines such as Hib and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines may promote disease progression is not borne out in practice. Although the risk of invasive pneumococcal disease is greater, HIV-positive children
are also at increased risk of invasive Hib disease [51]. A US study comparing bacteraemia rates in the pre- and post-HAART eras reported a 70% reduction in bacteraemia rates in Hib-vaccinated HIV-infected children [52], although, when invasive Hib infections did occur despite HAART, case fatality rates still exceeded those of uninfected children. Few immunogenicity studies reported to date involve HIV-positive children on HAART. In the pre-HAART era, responses in children to Hib conjugate vaccine were reduced and relatively short-lived [53]. In a US
case series of 18 children (median age 7 years) on HAART for a median of 20 months (79% with virological suppression), Adenosine 78% had protective anti-Hib concentrations after one-to-four doses of vaccine, and three of four children who required an additional dose of vaccine seroconverted [54], indicating the potential benefit of revaccinating this group once on effective HAART. Standard three- to four-dose primary/booster childhood schedules should be adhered to for HIV-positive children; a need for additional doses may be indicated by serology, especially for those who were not on HAART when immunized. Beyond infancy, unvaccinated children should receive Hib conjugate vaccine at least up to the age of 10 years, and ideally this should be extended to adolescence, in line with recommendations for the MenC vaccine. Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) is used routinely across Europe in childhood immunization programmes and for nonimmune immunocompromised persons. Immunoresponsiveness in HIV-infected children is thought to depend on immunological status [55], but data, especially from the HAART era, are very limited.