Achievement goal theory typically differentiates between two type

Achievement goal theory typically differentiates between two types of goal orientations: task and ego. Task orientation is related to developing competence by improving upon one��s skills, personal competence selleck and task mastery. It is assumed that task orientation will lead to positive and adaptive achievement behaviors (Duda et al., 1995). Athletes with a task goal orientation tend to select and persist at challenging tasks because they value effort as a way to attain new skills. In contrast, ego orientation is based on one��s subjective evaluation of performance compared with that of others (Nicholls, 1989). Generally, ego orientation is associated with maladaptive motivational patterns that are dependent on an individual��s perceived ability (Xiang et al., 2004).

Athletes who endorse an ego orientation tend to select tasks that are easier and tasks at which they perceive their chances of success will be high (Tyson et al., 2009). Research has shown a link between these two theories that are concerned with the underlying motivations for an individual��s behavior though focusing on different dimensions of motivation. An ego orientation represents an internally controlling state that can undermine intrinsic motivation, whereas a task goal orientation represents a state in which individuals derives pleasure from participation that facilitates intrinsic motivation (Cox, 2002; Deci and Ryan, 1985). Task orientation predicted intrinsic motivation, but did not predict amotivation (Ntoumanis, 2001). Conversely, ego orientation was associated with extrinsic motivation.

These studies show that task goal orientation fostered intrinsic motivation, whereas ego orientation promoted extrinsic motivation. Among the factors that influence athletes�� perceptions of self-determination and goal orientations are socio-demographic characteristics like gender, age and locality. Gender differences Adolescents�� self-determination of activities tends to differ mainly in sex stereotypic ways where females have higher self-determined motivational profiles than males in a diversity of sporting activities (Medic et al., 2007; Recours et al., 2004). Researchers have found that females tend to be more intrinsically motivated, whereas males tend to be more extrinsically-motivated in the sports context (Beaudoin, 2006). Intrinsically-motivated athletes participate more for pleasure, fun and satisfaction.

In contrast, extrinsically-motivated athletes participate more for competition Anacetrapib and the satisfaction of winning (Hellandsig, 1998). Other studies have shown that extrinsically-motivated male athletes tend to focus on rewards and recognition whereas intrinsically-motivated female athletes focus more on fun and task mastery (Tuffey, 2000). Researchers have also found that females tend to be more task-oriented, whereas males tend to be more ego-oriented in the sports context (Li et al., 1996).

, 2009) In short, it is obvious that this anthropometric charact

, 2009). In short, it is obvious that this anthropometric characteristic allows them to cover the wider space of the goal and hence selleck screening library to defend the net more successfully. Because of the constant contact during the game, Centers are known to be the largest of all players in terms of body length and body mass. Therefore, it was not surprising that, although similar to the Points and Goalkeepers in BH, the Centers are the heaviest and have the highest BMI of all five playing positions. Apparently, their increased BM and BMI are partially but not entirely related to increased body fat (i.e. Centers have higher skinfolds than the Goalkeepers and Wings, but there is no significant difference in any of the body fat measures between the Centers, Points and Drivers).

This is in line with previous findings where authors discussed the clear need for a Center��s morphological-anthropometric dominance in terms of advanced BM, especially against rival Points (M. Lozovina, et al., 2009). More precisely, these two playing-positions are direct opponents (i.e. the Point guards the offensive Center) and if a Center wants to be effective in his/her offensive tasks, he/she must be physically superior to the defensive player guarding him (her). Although previous studies rarely studied water polo goalkeepers with regard to their anthropometric status, the results of the Goalkeepers�� anthropometric variables did not surprise us. Most particularly, they are slightly, although not significantly dominant in AS, and have the lowest BMI of all players.

Such an anthropometric profile allows them to cover the net efficiently (because of their large arm span) and to change position quickly (because of their low BMI). Since the official rules of water polo protect Goalkeepers from the contact-game, their low BMI is clearly a function of their agile movement and quick positioning in front of the goal with regard to offensive actions and his/her team��s defensive tactics. The importance of the specific physical fitness profile of different playing positions is already recognized in team sports (Ben Abdelkrim et al., 2010; Markovic and Mikulic, 2011; Pyne et al., 2006), but such studies are evidently scarce in water polo, especially among junior players. Therefore, the results of the specific physical fitness tests we presented above are hardly comparable to previous findings.

Although the playing positions did not differ significantly in the lactate capacity (4x50m) and 100m swimming results, the swimming performance Cilengitide measured by swimming 25m (ATPCP capacity), and 400m (aerobic capacity) revealed the Points to be the best swimmers. According to previous studies, the background to such findings should be identified through anthropometric profiles. In a recent study where authors identified the optimal morphological/anthropometric characteristics of young competitive swimmers, Sekulic et al.

Subjects were

Subjects were Nutlin-3a msds measured wearing shorts and t-shirts (shoes and socks were asked to be removed). Overhead Medicine Ball Throwing An overhead medicine ball throw was used to evaluate the upper body ability to generate muscular actions at a high rate of speed. Prior to baseline tests, each subject underwent one familiarization session and was counselled on proper overhead throwing with different weighted balls. Pre-tests, post-tests and de-training measurements were taken on maximal throwing velocity using medicine balls weighing 1kg (perimeter 0.72m) and 3kg (perimeter 0.78m). A general warm-up period of 10 minutes, which included throwing the different weighted balls, was allowed. While standing, subjects held medicine balls with 1 and 3kg in both hands in front of the body with arms relaxed.

The students were instructed to throw the ball over their heads as far as possible. A counter movement was allowed during the action. Five trials were performed with a one-minute rest between each trial. Only the best throw was used for analysis. The ball throwing distance (BTd) was recorded to the closest cm as proposed by van Den Tillaar & Marques (2009). This was possible as polyvinyl chloride medicine balls were used and when they fall on the Copolymer Polypropylene floor they make a visible mark. The ICC of data for 1kg and 3 kg medicine ball throwing was 0.94 and 0.93, respectively. Counter Movement Vertical Jump (CMVJ) The standing vertical jump is a popular test of leg power and is routinely used to monitor the effectiveness of an athlete’s conditioning program.

The students were asked to perform a counter movement jump (with hands on pelvic girth) for maximum height. The jumper starts from an upright standing position, making a preliminary downward movement by flexing at the knees and hips; then immediately extends the knees and hips again to jump vertically up off the ground. Such movement makes use of the stretch-shorten cycle, where the muscles are pre-stretched before shortening in the desired direction (0). It was considered only the best performance from the three jump attempts allowed. The counter movement vertical jump has shown an ICC of 0.89. Counter Movement Standing Long Jump (CMSLJ) Each participant completed three trials with a 1-min recovery between trials using a standardised jumping protocol to reduce inter-individual variability.

From a standing position, with the feet shoulder-width apart and the hands placed on the pelvic girth, the girls produced a counter movement with the legs before jumping horizontally as far as possible. The greatest distance (meters) of the two jumps was taken as the test score, measured from the heel of the rear foot. A fiber-glass tape measure (Vinex, MST-50M, Meerut, India) was extended across the floor and used to measure the horizontal distance. The counter Drug_discovery movement standing long jump has shown an ICC of 0.96.

It is necessary that

It is necessary that molecular weight calculator appropriate time for this training be considered and also teachers must abide the principles of adult education. If the class time can be set such that learners could more easily participate in it, class performance and learners eagerness will be increase. Acknowledgments We wish to thank all those helped us in doing this research, especially Rebirth Society managers and staff, rehabilitation centers, professors and graduates of chemical dependency counseling course and finally Mr Omid Setudeh and Mrs Sedigheh Kavand. Footnotes Conflicts of Interest The Authors have no conflict of interest.
Addiction toward natural and artificial substances has increased during the past few decades which indicates the incidence of a new problem in physical and social health.

1 The term addicted individual can be defined as one who has a very strong desire toward addictive substances, regardless of its consequences.2 According to the UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), 172-250 million people in the world have used illegal drugs at least once a year3 and according to the latest reports in the rapid situation assessment (RSA) of drug abuse in Iran, the number of addicts are estimated to have been 1,200,000 people in 2007.4 On the other hand, statistics indicate that the drug use rate among different communities particularly among youths and adolescents has had an increasing growth in the recent decade.5 Scientifically, tendency to addiction is an internal state in which there is a high likelihood of addiction.

6 Factors influencing the tendency of youths towards addiction are personal, interpersonal and social factors. Anxiety and depression (mental factor) are two of the high risk personal factors.7 Some studies have indicated that personal factors, anxiety and depression are the most important causes of the tendency to addiction.8 Many studies have emphasized the prevalence of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression among substance users.9,10 The findings indicated that depression can occur during substance using and/or after withdrawal. Thus, data show that more than 37% of alcohol abusers and 53% of drug abusers at least suffer from one serious psychological disease. On the other hand, depression, anxiety and other psychological disorders also increase the risk of addiction; given that statistics show 29% of those with one type of psychological disease also suffered from either alcohol or other illegal drugs abuse.

9 One of the explanatory models of mood disorders, such as depression and anxiety, is the metacognitive model which Carfilzomib is a multi-dimensional concept. It includes knowledge, processes and strategies that recognize, assess or control cognition.11 Self-regulatory executive function (S-REF) Model by Matthews is the first theory conceptualize the role of metacognition in etiology and continuation of psychological disorders.