The amount of culturable bacteria detected in our study is similar to previous reports from the polar sites mentioned above.

Our plate counts were, however, AZD8055 research buy performed with frozen samples transported from Greenland to our laboratory in Denmark and we cannot exclude that this has affected the analysis negatively in comparison with plate counts based on fresh samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the most diluted MPN wells with polluted top soil and growing phenanthrene degraders showed the presence of strains related to Sphingomonas spp. and Pseudomonas spp. (Table 3). A community predominantly composed of Pseudomonas strains was apparent in wells with diluted polluted subsurface soil. Although it is not possible to conclusively link these clones to phenanthrene degradation, it seems likely that they played a role in the phenanthrene-based growth

detected in these MPN wells either by directly degrading phenanthrene or by indirectly feeding on exudates from the active degraders. Most 16S rRNA gene sequences from the wells had 98–100% sequence homology to bacteria isolated from either a cold and/or a contaminated find more environment. Interestingly, clones 13.1 and 13.4 from well 13 inoculated with diluted subsurface soil (Table 4) had the highest homology to Variovorax sp. 44/31 isolated from a hydrocarbon-contaminated Antarctic soil (Saul et al., 2005). This indicates that this strain, or a group of closely related cold-adapted hydrocarbon-degrading Variovorax spp., is widely distributed and proliferates in both Arctic and Antarctic areas affected by fuel spillage. A similar dominance of members of the genera Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas has been presented by Saul et al. (2005) in a study of hydrocarbon-contaminated Antarctic soils and by Eriksson et al. (2003) in a study of fuel-contaminated Canadian High Arctic soils. These genera

are known key players in other cold and temperate soils polluted with hydrocarbons and PAHs (Whyte et al., 2002; Eriksson L-gulonolactone oxidase et al., 2003; Aislabie et al., 2006; Labbéet al., 2007), which suggests a global distribution and potential proliferation in hydrocarbon-exposed soils. This study is the first to show an intrinsic bioremediation potential in hydrocarbon-contaminated Greenlandic High Arctic soils. We found evidence for the presence and potential activity of indigenous populations degrading at least some oil components in the polluted soils. These populations appeared to be phylogenetically related to others described from cold and/or contaminated environments. Our results, however, suggest that the very low ambient temperatures prevailing most of the year at St. Nord could be a restriction for the degradative activity even though competent degraders are present. This work was supported by the Carlsberg Foundation (funding for S.

Other interesting, putatively pathogenicity-related dermatophyte genes have been identified recently in a broad transcriptome

approach in A. benhamiae during the interaction with human keratinocytes (Burmester et al., 2011). In comparison with many other fungi, dermatophytes have been shown to be less amenable to genetic manipulation. As a result, site-directed mutagenesis in dermatophyte species has been evidenced only in a very small number of cases. This drawback is assumed to be a result of both low transformation frequency and inefficient check details homologous integration, processes that are indispensable for targeted genetic manipulations. The first successful transformation of a dermatophyte has been described in 1989 by Gonzalez et al. (1989) in T. mentagrophytes (Table 1). The transformation protocol applied was based on a standard protoplast/polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated procedure that has been established widely in filamentous fungi,

for example Aspergillus nidulans, Neurospora crassa and others (for a review, see Fincham, 1989; Weld et al., 2006). As a marker for the selection of T. mentagrophytes transformants, the system used the bacterial hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene hph. Plasmid DNA was stably integrated into the fungal genome with varying integration sites and numbers of insertions in the resulting transformants. Thereafter, no further attempts on dermatophyte transformation have been reported until 2004, when Kaufman et al. (2004) described PEG-mediated SB431542 price protoplast transformation and restriction-enzyme-mediated integration in T. mentagrophytes, using the hph gene as a selectable marker and the gene

encoding the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) as a reporter. PEG-mediated transformation and transformant selection via hygromycin resistance was further demonstrated in M. canis (Yamada et al., 2005, 2006; Vermout et al., 2007) and T. rubrum (Fachin et al., 2006; Ferreira-Nozawa et al., 2006). Different other drugs/dominant markers have meanwhile RANTES been proven successful for the selection of transformants in T. mentagrophytes, i.e. two other aminoglycoside antibiotics/resistance genes, nourseothricin/Streptomyces noursei nourseothricin acetyltransferase gene nat1 (Alshahni et al., 2010) and geneticin (G-418)/Escherichia coli neomycin phosphotransferase gene neo (Yamada et al., 2008). The latter marker as well as hph were also used successfully in A. benhamiae (Grumbt et al., 2011). Besides PEG-mediated protoplast transformation, other techniques facilitating gene transfer were also meanwhile adopted in dermatophytes. A promising Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system was established recently for T. mentagrophytes (Yamada et al., 2009b). ATMT has already strongly advanced functional genomics in various filamentous fungi before (for a review, see Michielse et al.

5 mM imidazole, 0.5 M NaCl, 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.9), and then sonicated. After centrifugation at 10 000 g for 10 min at 4 °C, the insoluble fraction was solubilized in the binding buffer with 6 M urea during an overnight incubation on ice. The His(6)-tagged XrvB protein, which was included in the soluble fraction,

was purified using a His-Bind Resin column (Merk). The target plasmid, which is a pBluescript II SK+ derivative with the click here putative promoter region of hrpG (−686 to +56) amplified by PCR (Table S2 for primers), was digested with SspI, PvuII and BamHI, and incubated with the purified His(6)-tagged XrvB for 15 min at 37 °C in the reaction buffer described by Soutourina et al. (1999). After the reaction, the samples were loaded onto a 1% TBE-agarose gel, followed by staining with ethidium bromide. First, we examined the expression Crizotinib of xrvB under culture conditions.

Semi-qRT-PCR analysis using total RNA extracted from bacteria after a 16-h incubation in the hrp-inducing (XOM2) or the hrp-noninducing medium (NBY) as templates revealed that xrvB is expressed under both conditions (data not shown). To investigate the involvement of XrvB in the expression of hrp regulatory gene hrpG, we transformed MAFF/XrvB∷Km with a plasmid that harbored the GUS gene preceded by the hrpG promoter (pHMHrpG∷GUS) (Tsuge et al., 2006). The transformant was incubated in XOM2 for 16 h, and then GUS activity was measured. GUS activity was approximately two times higher in the mutant strain than in the parental strain (Table 1), indicating higher hrpG

expression in MAFF/XrvB∷Km. The expression level of a phosphoglucose isomerase gene (pgi) in the mutant, which is independent of the hrp-regulatory system (Tsuge et al., 2004, 2006) and was used as a control, was similar to that in the wild type. Semi-qRT-PCR using bacterial total RNA extracted after a 16-h incubation in XOM2 revealed that more hrpG transcript was produced in MAFF/XrvB∷Km with the empty vector pHM1 than in the wild-type derivative and that the hrpG transcript Verteporfin ic50 was reduced by the introduction of the complementary plasmid pHMXrvB harboring a PCR-amplified 550-bp fragment containing xrvB and the preceding putative promoter region (−93 to −1) (Fig. 1). The results suggest that, unlike another H-NS protein, XrvA, XrvB is involved in the negative regulation of hrpG expression. We also investigated the expression of another hrp-regulatory gene, hrpX, which is regulated by HrpG and regulates other hrp genes and T3S protein genes (Furutani et al., 2006, 2009; Wengelnik & Bonas, 1996), in MAFF/XrvB∷Km. When MAFF/XrvB∷Km with pHMHrpX∷GUS, harboring the GUS gene controlled by the hrpX promoter (Tsuge et al., 2006), was incubated in XOM2, GUS activity was higher than that for the wild-type derivative, indicating that the expression of hrpX also increases from the lack of XrvB (Table 1).

Using quantitative real-time PCR, the suitability of the HSP30 promoter to specifically drive stationary-phase expression of the native FLO5 and FLO11 ORFs in BM45 and VIN13 transgenic strains under synthetic MS300 wine fermentation conditions has been demonstrated in our recent research study (Govender et al.,

2010). In this study, transgenic yeast strains (BM45-F5H, BM45-F11H, VIN13-F5H and VIN13-F11H) in which an ORF of a dominant chromosomal flocculation gene (FLO5 or FLO11) was placed under the transcriptional control of the stationary-phase inducible HSP30 promoter displayed metabolic fermentation profiles in natural Merlot must that were almost indistinguishable from their parental host wine yeast strains. Considering that wines are regarded selleck screening library as dry if their residual sugar content is <5 g L−1, it is clearly evident that Merlot wines (≤1.95 g L−1 residual

sugars) produced by both parental host wine yeast strains and their HSP30p transgenic descendants were fermented almost equally well to dryness. Moreover, HSP30p transgenic wine yeast strains produced Merlot wines that displayed almost identical volatile and aroma compound profiles. Thus, it can be suggested that introduction of promoter replacement cassettes designed for induction of late fermentation flocculation does not compromise the desirable oenological properties of original nonflocculent host wine yeast strains under authentic red wine-making conditions. Thymidine kinase The BM45-F5H and VIN13-F5H transformants displayed almost identical Flo1-type flocculation Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library intensity in both synthetic MS300 and Merlot wine fermentations (Govender et al., 2010). Only

the BM45-F5H strain was capable of generating compacted or ‘caked’ lees fractions, thereby providing a distinct separation of the fermented wine product and lees fractions. The benefit of this attractive property is that it facilitates simpler and faster recovery of wines and it also promotes a greater volume recovery of fermented wine product. This improvement has significant financial cost-saving implications and can be directly attributed to the superior flocculent ability of the BM45-F5H transgenic strain. The BM45-F11H and VIN13-F11H transgenic wine yeast strains yielded strong flocculent phenotypes that displayed a combination of both Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent flocculation characteristics under authentic red wine-making conditions. In addition, no flocculent phenotype was displayed by the same transgenic yeast strains in aerobic shake-flask MS300 batch fermentations supplemented with an individual red wine fermentation component (pectin, potassium bitartrate, diatomaceous earth, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechin or a tannin). As such, these individual components seem not to aid in the development of the novel FLO11-mediated flocculation phenotype observed under authentic red wine fermentations conditions.

This outcome is in stark contrast to results obtained by previous studies of spatial attention,

in which both primary and secondary targets are enhanced at the expected side of the primary modality (Spence & Driver, 1996; Eimer, 1999). Our results can also not solely be explained by reorienting attention in time. Were that so, one should have observed that, for the early time point, the secondary www.selleckchem.com/products/GDC-0980-RG7422.html and primary modalities would both be modulated in the same direction through temporal attention whilst, for the late time point, the secondary modality should not follow the temporal modulation of the primary modality but instead be faster if the late time point was not expected. Therefore, we conclude that our results seem to point towards generally different mechanisms of spatial and temporal attention, which seem to be supported by the various findings obtained in studies using such physiological recordings as ERPs and fMRI. This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PSI2010-15426), the Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del DIUE-Generalitat de Catalunya (SRG2009-092) and the European Research Council (StG-2010 263145) to S.S.F. Abbreviations ERP event-related potential IE inverse

efficiency RT reaction time SEM standard error of the mean “
“Selective attention mechanisms allow us to focus on information that is relevant to the current behavior and, equally important, ignore irrelevant information. An influential Atezolizumab price model proposes that oscillatory neural activity in the alpha band serves as an active functional inhibitory mechanism. Recent studies have shown that, in the same way that attention can be selectively oriented to bias sensory processing in favor of relevant stimuli in perceptual tasks, it is also possible to retrospectively orient attention to internal representations held in working memory.

Megestrol Acetate However, these studies have not explored the associated oscillatory phenomena. In the current study, we analysed the patterns of neural oscillatory activity recorded with magnetoencephalography while participants performed a change detection task, in which a spatial retro-cue was presented during the maintenance period, indicating which item or items were relevant for subsequent retrieval. Participants benefited from retro-cues in terms of accuracy and reaction time. Retro-cues also modulated oscillatory activity in the alpha and gamma frequency bands. We observed greater alpha activity in a ventral visual region ipsilateral to the attended hemifield, thus supporting its suppressive role, i.e. a functional disengagement of task-irrelevant regions.

There were some limitations. The sample size was relatively small, but adequately powered to detect the anticipated changes in glucose tolerance/insulin sensitivity. On average, the participants’ baseline CVD risk was not high (Framingham 10-year risk score 4.3–4.8) and very few met National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATPIII) criteria for the ‘metabolic syndrome’. This may have limited our ability to show that yoga significantly reduced CVD risk, or improved metabolic or anthropomorphic variables more than standard of care. Regardless, blood pressure was reduced by yoga practice, and hypertension is an independent CVD risk factor. The

form of yoga utilized was physically demanding and other forms of yoga (restorative) might provide different results. In HIV-infected adults with mild–moderate cardiometabolic syndrome, 20 weeks of supervised Natural Product Library research buy yoga significantly reduced resting systolic and diastolic blood pressures, Ivacaftor despite the absence of parallel improvements in oral glucose tolerance, body weight, trunk fat content or proatherogenic lipid levels. These findings suggest that, in HIV-infected people with pre-hypertension, the practice of yoga is another

lifestyle/behaviour intervention that can be recommended to safely reduce blood pressure, one component of the CVD risk profile. We thank the participants for their devotion to this study. Debra DeMarco-Shaw, BSN, ACRN and Atla Williams assisted with participant recruitment and enrolment. Funding: This project was supported by National Institutes of Health

grants AT003083, DK049393, DK059531 (KEY), DK074343 (WTC), Protirelin RR019508 (DNR), AI065336 (KEM), DK056341, DK020579, AI069495, and RR024992 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official view of NIH or its Institutes. (NCT#00627380.) “
“Emtricitabine/tenofovir/rilpivirine as a single-tablet regimen (STR) is widely used without licence in treatment-experienced patients. The purpose of this retrospective observational study was to assess viral suppression of ART-experienced patients switching to STR. We assessed 131 pretreated patients switching to STR with HIV RNA < 400 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL. The primary outcome measure was the proportion of patients at week 24 with HIV RNA < 40 copies/mL. By week 24, eight patients had stopped STR: four because of adverse events and four for other reasons. Three virological failures were observed; among these, at least one patient developed cross-resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), in particular with the E138K pattern. In intent-to-treat analysis, 92% of participants (120 of 131) achieved HIV RNA < 40 copies/mL. Only grade 1 to 2 adverse events were observed, mainly consisting of increased liver enzymes (n = 33).

“
“Hippocampal inhibitory interneurons have a central role in the control of network activity,

and excitatory synapses that they receive express Hebbian and anti-Hebbian long-term potentiation (LTP). Because many interneurons in the hippocampus express nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), we explored whether exposure to nicotine promotes LTP induction in these interneurons. We focussed on a subset of interneurons in the stratum oriens/alveus that were continuously activated in the presence of nicotine due to the expression of non-desensitizing non-α7 nAChRs. We found that, in addition to α2 subunit mRNAs, these interneurons were consistently positive for somatostatin and neuropeptide Y mRNAs, and http://www.selleckchem.com/products/apo866-fk866.html showed morphological characteristics of oriens-lacunosum moleculare cells. Activation of non-α7 nAChRs increased intracellular Ca2+ levels at least in part via Ca2+ entry through their channels. Presynaptic tetanic stimulation induced N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-independent LTP in voltage-clamped interneurons at −70 mV when in the presence, but not absence, of nicotine. Intracellular application of a Ca2+ chelator blocked LTP induction, suggesting the requirement of Ca2+ signal for LTP induction. The Inhibitor Library cell assay induction of LTP was still observed in the presence of ryanodine, which inhibits Ca2+ -induced

Ca2+ release from ryanodine-sensitive intracellular stores, and the L-type Ca2+ channel blocker nifedipine. These results

suggest that Ca2+ entry through non-α7 nAChR channels is critical for LTP induction. Thus, nicotine affects hippocampal network activity by promoting LTP induction in oriens-lacunosum moleculare cells via continuous activation of non-α7 nAChRs. “
“Kisspeptin signaling via the kisspeptin receptor G-protein-coupled receptor-54 plays a fundamental role in the onset of puberty and the regulation of mammalian reproduction. In this immunocytochemical study we addressed the (i) topography, (ii) sexual dimorphism, (iii) relationship to gonadotropin-releasing Pyruvate dehydrogenase hormone (GnRH) neurons and (iv) neurokinin B content of kisspeptin-immunoreactive hypothalamic neurons in human autopsy samples. In females, kisspeptin-immunoreactive axons formed a dense periventricular plexus and profusely innervated capillary vessels in the infundibular stalk. Most immunolabeled somata occurred in the infundibular nucleus. Many cells were also embedded in the periventricular fiber plexus. Rostrally, they formed a prominent periventricular cell mass (magnocellular paraventricular nucleus). Robust sex differences were noticed in that fibers and somata were significantly less numerous in male individuals. In dual-immunolabeled specimens, fine kisspeptin-immunoreactive axon varicosities formed axo-somatic, axo-dendritic and axo-axonal contacts with GnRH neurons.

Biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine and freshwater environments is constrained by the ability of microorganisms to access the hydrophobic surfaces of oil droplets. A key process for attachment to oil droplets involves the production of surface active agents (Horowitz et al., 1975), which is further accompanied by changes in the properties of the cell envelope. One of the most notable features is the formation of canals in the cell wall, which appears to enable the

transport of nanometer-sized droplets into the surface of the interior cell membrane (Southam et al., 2001). The first step involving the secretion of surface active agents includes the production of relatively low-molecular-weight

surfactants that decrease the surface tension and excretion of Veliparib in vitro high-molecular-weight polysaccharide polymers that serve to emulsify the oil and water into small particles that provide increased surface area for enzymatic attack. In several studies, these exopolymers appear along with fibrils and wall appendages (Marin et al., 1996; Macedo et al., 2005), and can include embedded flagella that are used for both motility and attachment of the cells to the oil surface (Marin et al., 1996). Another microscopic study further reports the appearance of cellular aggregates that form over the surface buy NVP-BEZ235 of oil droplets and invade the oil as the biofilm matures (Macedo et al., 2005). Altogether, these studies provide the basis for comparisons of different model systems. On the other hand, there have been Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) few comparative studies examining different microorganism and substrate conditions using the same methods. Moreover, the three-dimensional (3D)

structures of the microhabitats that are generated by exocellular polymers have not yet been described using 3D reconstructions of serial sections cut through oil droplets that are colonized by microorganisms. With the current interest in the remediation of oil-polluted marine and freshwater environments, a better description of the feeding structures is highly relevant for understanding how biophysical processes and cell wall adaptations influence the rate of oil degradation. The research described here used a combination of cytochemical stains and microscopy techniques to describe the specific exocellular fibrils, films and internal granules that are generated by yeasts and bacteria during oil droplet colonization. A novel aspect of the present research was the use of serial sections and computer imaging to generate a 3D reconstruction of the habitat that is formed by selected yeast and bacteria on the oil droplet surfaces. These trophic structures appear as pits and cavities that enclose microbial cells along with the polymers and enzymes that are produced by the oil-degrading microorganisms.

Genomic DNA of the drrA–drrB null mutant was cut with BamHI and ligated to the dephosphorylated BamHI ends of pBluescript SK−. Escherichia coli cells transformed with ligated DNA were selected on ampicillin and apramycin (positive selection) plates. This recombinant clone pRESAB was sequenced with appropriate primers (Genetic Analyzer ABI310) to confirm the presence of the

chromosome–marker junction sequence on the drrB side of integration. check details Digestion of pRESAB with XbaI–BamHI released a 2.1-kb fragment comprising a drrB carboxy end and the adjacent drrD/dnrW gene. This was cloned in pOK12 (Vieira & Messing, 1991) and sequenced with M13 forward and reverse primers. The medium used for the study was prepared

as described previously (Dekleva et al., 1985). Single-colony S. peucetius was inoculated into 25 mL nitrate defined medium with 0.5% yeast extract and grown for 36 h at 30 °C, 180 r.p.m. Mycelia were collected OSI906 by centrifugation at 2000 g for 20 min at 4 °C. One gram wet weight of mycelia was inoculated in 100 mL of nitrate defined medium (NDM) with 5% maltose as the carbon source and grown for 120 h at 30 °C. Anthracylines were extracted and analyzed by HPLC (Shimadzu, Japan) as described earlier (Bartel et al., 1990). A C18 reverse-phase octadecyl column (Shimadzu) was used. The mobile phase was 65% methanol and 35% phosphorylated water, pH 2.0. DNR (Sigma Aldrich, Bangalore, India) was used as the standard. HPLC was set at a flow rate of 1 mL min−1 and A254 nm was measured. A series of dilutions were analyzed by HPLC to construct the standard graph. DNR levels were estimated based on the peak area of the DNR standard. The drrA–drrB null mutant and WT cells were tested for levels of resistance to DNR in the culture medium. R2YE plates with 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 μg mL−1 DNR were prepared. The cells were grown in NDM liquid for 120 h and 10 μL of the ADAMTS5 culture was placed on an agar surface. Plates were incubated

for 90 h and photographed to record growth inhibition. Total RNA was prepared using the RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. The RNA was treated with Turbo DNAse (Ambion) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. RNA was quantified using a Nanodrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer, and the quality of RNA was analyzed on an agarose gel as described by Kieser et al. (1998). In a 10-μL reaction, 1 μg RNA, 1 mM dNTP mix and 250 ng of random hexamer (Promega) were heated to 80 °C for 5 min and rapidly chilled on ice. Two hundred units of M-MLV reverse transcriptase and 20 U Rnasin (Sigma Aldrich) were added and the volume was made up to 20 μL. The mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 60 min; the reaction was stopped by heating at 90 °C for 5 min. Control reactions were carried out without reverse transcriptase.

, 2005b). It has been proposed that the activity enhancement of working memory induced by tDCS over the left DLPFC could be responsible for motor improvement (Fregni et al., 2005a).

Therefore, we suggest that activation of this area by mental training (Thobois et al., 2000) added to the anodal tDCS-induced excitability increase (Zaehle et al., 2011) in our study might allow an increase in the capacity of the system responsible for maintaining order information active. With enhancement of working memory efficiency, the motor plans may be stored and/or precompiled not only for individual letters but also for larger graphemic chunks, allowing for faster production of letter sequences. This explanation of the results is necessarily GPCR Compound Library somewhat hypothetical at present, as further investigations are needed to prove or disprove this proposed mechanism. In our study, two dimensions were used to evaluate handwriting performance: writing time and legibility. Selumetinib nmr With regards to legibility, compared with the sham condition, any stimulation type used in our study combined with mental training was unable to alter the quality of legibility in the categories word length, word and letter legibility. However, only the cerebellar stimulation worsened one category of legibility (word size). The letter/word size outcome can be used to measure the development of the motor control of distal movements (Chartrel & Vinter, 2008). It has been proposed that, at the

beginning of the handwriting learning process, essentially

it uses proximal articulations resulting in impulsive and large-sized movements. Motor maturity enables the distalisation of the movement, which gives subjects better control of their movements and therefore improves the quality of the production, revealed by a decrease of word/letter size (Meulenbroek & Van Galen, 1988; Chartrel & Vinter, 2008). The lack of specific effects on handwriting legibility might be mainly due to limitations of the assessment approach. As a complex motor skill, it is likely that handwriting quality is not sufficiently sensitive to precisely show the effects of only one session of tDCS combined with MP. In this scenario, perhaps quantitative Methamphetamine kinematic analysis of writing quality (such as length, duration, mean and peak velocity of components and strokes) could be too sensitive to detect changes of performance on complex handwriting tasks after mental training. Size, specifically the vertical stroke size, was found to be the most invariant property of handwriting (Teulings & Schomaker, 1993). However, in our study, the cerebellar tDCS increases word size after mental training. It is known that the cerebellum is a brain structure where mismatches between intended and perceived outcomes of motor processes are monitored and corrected (Oscarsson, 1980; Schmahmann et al., 1999). Damage to the cerebellum produces errors in the planning and execution of movements (Kleim et al.