Tissues with high SOD levels and low NQO1 expression may have decreased clearance of superoxide anion, generating other check details reactive species and worsening liver injury [47]. In this study, Keap1/Nrf2 were assessed in animals with PL and advanced HCC. There is doubt as to whether Nrf2 is a tumor suppressor or oncogenic [48]. Under basal conditions, Nrf2 is sequestered in the cytoplasm by Keap1, but

induction of oxidative stress is able to dissociate Nrf2 from Keap1, leading to its translocation to the nucleus and subsequent increase on antioxidant genes expression [49]. We observed that animals in late-stage (advanced) HCC showed Keap1 overexpression and Nrf2 downregulation compared to animals in the PL group. It is known that the Nrf2 system could be induced by chemical carcinogens [50]. Activation of this factor facilitates cytoprotection and contributes to the proliferation and survival of tumor cells, whereas its inhibition results in degradation [51] and [52], allowing an increase in ROS

attacks to the cell. The role of Nrf2 is dependent on the stage of carcinogenesis. In the inflammatory phase, with precancerous lesions, increased activation of Nrf2 aims to reduce oxidative stress, thus contributing to tumor suppression [53]. Meanwhile, maintaining Nrf2 activation during the tumorigenesis stage may facilitate the transformation of dysplastic nodules into malignant cancer cells and make them resistant to treatment [53] and [54].

During the development of carcinoma, an increase in Nrf2 protein is associated with poor prognosis this website [48]. In our work, Nrf2 and Keap1 changes observed in both PL and HCC groups were in parallel with the changes on SOD activity, contributing to liver injury during hepatocarcinogenesis. Another interesting finding from our investigation was the significant reduction in the expression of HSP70 in liver tissue Vorinostat in vitro with advanced HCC. HSP70 has strong cytoprotective effects and functions as a molecular chaperone in protein folding, transport, and degradation [55]. HSP70 downregulation is associated with carcinogenesis of the oral epithelium, and is a marker of HCC [56]. HSP70 downregulation also correlates with poor prognosis in breast cancer [57], endometrial cancer [58], and pancreatic cancer [56]. Rohde et al. [59] reported that HSP70 is not a condition for the growth of tumor cells, but plays an important role in maintaining the deregulated tumor cell cycle. Chuma et al. [60] evaluated the expression of HSP70 in liver tissue with and without cancer, and identified HSP70 as a molecular marker of HCC progression. In conclusion, we have shown a multistage induction of HCC in rats through chronic and intermittent exposure to carcinogenic agents. Changes in SOD and NrF2 and TGF-1β stand out as markers of oxidative stress and cell damage in early HCC.

The range of interobserver kappa values was −0.008 to 1.00. When the frequency of a certain trait is low, such as for agenesis of the maxillary

central incisors, a single disagreement can have a major effect on the kappa. The negative kappa value for the interobserver agreement of maxillary central incisors in the non-cleft side was the result of only 2 disagreements between the 2 observers. Furthermore, this had no effect on the see more reliability of our data, as an uncertain observation concerning the presence or absence of a tooth at one point in time, could be verified on other OPTs at later time points. We choose to analyze our data separately for the cleft side and non cleft side as differences between sides may be expected. A recent meta-analysis confirmed that the majority of publications on tooth agenesis in OFCs did not do so. In their meta-analysis the authors attributed higher quality scores to studies that took the side, jaw and tooth type into consideration.18 In this cohort, we identified, in total, 13 different tooth agenesis patterns. The lateral incisor in the cleft quadrant was involved in 7 of these 13 different patterns. The maxillary lateral incisor at the non-cleft quadrant was absent in 8.7% of the patients, and was part of only two patterns. The most common selleck chemicals llc symmetric patterns in the maxilla were the lateral

incisors (5.2%), and the second premolars (0.9%) in the mandible. enough Our study confirmed the earlier observation that left-sided clefts are more common than right-sided clefts.9 We also found a statistically significant difference for the number of missing teeth in the cleft and the non-cleft quadrants (p = 0.020). Our findings regarding the sidedness of the cleft and tooth agenesis are confirmed by the existing literature. 9, 19 and 20 In our study however, children with a cleft on the right side were far less likely to have missing teeth. Although the prevalence of a cleft and tooth agenesis is significantly and consistently higher on the left side, as were clefts and tooth

agenesis separately, as for the combined phenotype, the underlying genetic aetiology for this general finding has not yet been explained. One way to speculate on this preferable sidedness of clefts and tooth agenesis, could be the observation of cleft sidedness and tooth agenesis of cleft syndromes, where clefts are associated with congenital defects of sided organs, like heart defects. An example is the OFCD (Occulo-facio-cardio-dental) syndrome, in which it has been shown that the causative gene (BCOR-gene) contributes to the left/right sidedness of organ development. 21 and 22 If the interaction of BCOR with clefting genes can be demonstrated, this could provide at least one of the clues for the higher prevalence of left sided clefts.

This last category included the functions that were less prevalent in the study population, including journalists, medical staff, wastewater management teams, and soil remediation teams. Finally, the five zones of presence on-site from the questionnaire were regrouped into three zones in the analyses: <50 m (immediately on the site of the train accident); 50–250 m; and >250 m. selleck screening library This last category corresponded to the perimeter of the evacuation zone that was determined for the residents. To facilitate an efficacious medical assistance to the emergency responders after the biomonitoring study, a communication plan was established in close collaboration with the communication

departments of the WIV-ISP and of the Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment. Apart from a mailing to each participant

with their individual value, it envisaged an all-embracing communication to the other stakeholders including recommendations to authorities and various information sessions for the individual participants and their occupational physicians. In addition, the Torin 1 clinical trial plan provided that participants with a high CEV value got a home visit by a medical practitioner to discuss their results. In total, there were 841 emergency responders (Table 2) with measures of CEV (blood), cotinine (urine), spatial and temporal information of the presence on-site between May 4–10 (questionnaire), and for whom the function was known. This study population Rucaparib was mainly composed of fire-fighters (54%) and police (34%); the three other groups (army, civil protection and ‘others’) together representing only 12%. The majority (89.5%) of the participants were men, with the highest proportions (95% or more) in the fire-fighters, the civil protection, and the army. In the police workers and in the group ‘others’, men were somewhat less represented (70.8% till 78.3%). Median ages were comparable among the different functions, varying between 35 and 46 years. Of the 841 emergency

responders, 206 (24.5%) were classified as ‘smokers’. The proportion of smokers was comparable among the different functions, ranging between 22.7% and 25.3%. Table 3 presents the CEV concentrations in the non-smokers, after extrapolation to the time of the accident, i.e., May 4. Twenty-six percent of the non-smokers exceeded the reference value of 10 pmol/g globin. The overall distribution of CEV concentrations in the non-smokers, however, remained within the ranges as described for smokers in the literature, the 95th percentile and the maximum value being 73 and 452 pmol/g globin, respectively. CEV levels differed clearly according to function with median values ranging from 2.6 pmol/g globin among the army till 15 pmol/g globin among the civil protection workers. The civil protection workers appeared to be the mostly exposed with almost 60% of results above the reference value, which is two times more than the proportion of increased CEV levels in fire-fighters or the group ‘others’.

The ballast on most ships is usually achieved using water, and the amount of ballast water transferred globally each year is estimated to be 10 billion tonnes (see Wright and Mackey, 2006 and MacPhee, 2006). Ships usually discharge ballast water in INK 128 order ports while loading and take up ballast water in destination ports while unloading, where the water is shallow and rich in aquatic organisms. Taking up non-indigenous species (NIS) in one port and transporting them to another sea can lead to significant environmental problems. Zebra mussels, native to the Caspian Sea region of Asia but transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water, reduce

the amount of phytoplankton available for other organisms and cost $100 M/year to manage control measures (see Pimentel et al., 2000). In order to prevent the transfer of aquatic organisms from one region to another via ballast water, the International Maritime Organization adopted the Ballast Water Management Convention in 2004. According to Ballast Water Exchange Standard, Regulation D-1 of the Convention, ships utilising the exchange method need to exchange ballast water

at least Galunisertib manufacturer 95% by volume; for ships exchanging ballast water by the pumping-through method, pumping through three times the volume of each ballast tank was considered to meet the standard. Pumping through less than three times the volume may be acceptable if the procedure can demonstrate that at least 95% of original ballast water is removed. The original intention of the Ballast Water Convention was that the water exchange technique would be a short-term solution and be replaced by water treatment. When

the Convention was written no ballast water treatment plants were in production. Their development has been slower than expected due to various reasons including an underestimation of the technical challenges, insufficient resources Thalidomide and market economics (see King et al., 2012). The magnitude of the logistical effort required for effective enforcement and regulation of various aspects of the Convention have also been identified as potential barriers to implementation (see Wright, 2012). These are some of the reasons that the Convention is still not ratified even though some of its initial deadlines for implementation have already passed. The situation is complex but the outcome is that ballast water exchange is still in widespread use and will continue to be so for quite some time. Moreover some authorities are now insisting on a combination of ballast water exchange and treatment. It is also becoming clear that a much more detailed understanding of the flow behaviour within ballast tanks is required for compliance assessment and enforcement once ballast water treatment is introduced.

Our means of simulation could be used for other species, both marine and freshwater, e.g. the data for the copepod Boeckella triarticulata ( Twombly & Burns

1996) like those from Klein Breteler (see section 2) could be used to test the model. The next step in our studies will be to determine the egg production by female of T. longicornis based on the hypothesis that the food-saturated rate of production of egg matter is equivalent to the specific growth rate. The copepod model will be calibrated for T. longicornis under the environmental conditions typical of the southern Baltic Sea, including the influence of salinity as a masking factor on its development. Another step in our work is to run the population model within an ecosystem model BMS-907351 price ( Dzierzbicka-Głowacka Carfilzomib et al. 2010a) to study the impact of seasonal variations of food and temperature as well as salinity on the T. longicornis biomass in the southern Baltic Sea. “
“In recent years both rare (or visiting) and exotic species have been recorded in the southern Baltic and its estuaries, e.g. sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (L., 1758), saithe Pollachius virens (L., 1758), ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta (Ascanius, 1767), snake pipefish Entelurus aequoreus (L., 1758), Atlantic mackerel

Scomber scombrus L., or swordfish Xiphias gladius L., 1758 ( Krzykawski et al., 2001, Bacevičius and Karalius, 2005, Grygiel and Trella, 2007, Lampart-Kałużniacka et al., 2007 and Czerniejewski et al., 2008). The present paper reports the first occurrence of striped red mullet (or surmullet) Mullus surmuletus L., 1758, in the Pomeranian Bay in 2007 and the occurrence of three very rarely noted species – tub or yellow gurnard Chelidonichthys lucerna (L., 1758), Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus L., 1758 and thicklip grey mullet Chelon labrosus (Risso, 1827) – caught in the Pomeranian Bay, Szczecin Lagoon and Lake Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase Dąbie in 2007–2008. The striped red mullet is a new species

found in the Pomeranian Bay, whereas the other three species are known from single finds and apparently belong to the category of accidentally occurring fish. The presence of these species in the Pomeranian Bay and adjacent waters (Szczecin Lagoon, Lake Dąbie) is probably due to strong inflows of saline water from the North Sea through the Danish Straits, as well as to climate changes (Nausch et al., 2007, Nausch et al., 2008 and Matthäus et al., 2008). The Baltic Sea’s environmental conditions and their variability are closely linked to the hydrological and meteorological processes and their interactions, among other things (Grygiel & Trella 2007), while the climate and hydrology of the Baltic Sea region is influenced by the winter intensity of the North Atlantic Oscillation NAO (Lehmann et al. 2002).

Cognitive interviewing, a qualitative method used find to out how respondents understand and answer structured questions was used to improve the validity

and acceptability of items [26] and [27]. Men and women aged 18+ were recruited if they had a health condition or cared for someone who had a health condition. Participants were purposely selected to reflect a spectrum of health conditions and carers and were asked to spend 10–15 min browsing a relevant health website. A spectrum of website providers were incorporated: government websites (for example, NHS Choices), charity websites (for example, Health Talk Online) and commercial websites (for example, BootsWebMD). Websites were chosen to ensure the items were tested with experiential content and ‘facts and figures’ content. Websites were also chosen to incorporate features such Veliparib supplier as discussion boards, video clips and ratings. The ‘verbal probing’ method of cognitive interviewing was used giving respondents an opportunity to provide uninterrupted answers to the items, followed by a focused

interview [26] and [28]. This method of interviewing queried a participant’s understanding of an item and their interpretation of the instructions and response options [20]. Items were checked for consistency of interpretation between participants and across health groups. Reoccurring problems with specific items or wording were highlighted. Analysis was carried out throughout the interview process so that problems AZD6244 in vivo identified could be revised and retested. Interviews were conducted until it was thought all potential problems with questionnaire completion had been identified,

revised and retested. The HERG interview archive has approval from the interview respondents for secondary analysis. Ethical approval was obtained for cognitive testing through the University of Oxford Ethics Committee. Ninety-nine participants, 28 (28.3%) men and 71 (71.7%) women, were included in the sample. All had used the internet in relation to a health issue. With the exception of four interviews conducted with couples and one interview with three http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/CHIR-99021.html young women, interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis. Participants ranged from 15 to 80 years old and had a mean age of 35.0 years (SD 16.9). Carers accounted for 30.3% of the participants interviewed whilst the remaining 69.7% were interviewed about their own health. Of those who reported their ethnicity (n = 75), 90.7% were white. Table 1 shows further detail. Participants within the sample reported accessing health websites intermittently; frequency of use peaked according to key health events (such as diagnosis, or progression of an illness). Participants had used different resources (including conventional health websites, health discussion forums and blogs) and often combined the information they found online with advice from health care professionals.

The covered SEMS were successfully removed from all patients within 30 days. The classification of Stapfer was used to determine the type of perforation. Table 1 Our results suggest that endoscopic management of transmural PSP can be successfully achieved in a significant

subset of patients yet at a lower cost and a shorter hospital stay. Larger studies to identify independent predictors of a successful outcome are needed. Table 1. Group I Group II P N 12 11 — Media age (years) 69.7 63.9 learn more — Perforation type  I 5/12 (41.6%) 4/11 (36.3%) NS  II 7/12 (58.3%) 7/11 (63.6%) NS Success of procedure (%) 11/12(91.6%) 1 patient develop severe retroperitoneal infection and die 11/11(100%) NS Peritoneal perforation (%) 5/12 (41.6%) 3/11 (27.2%) 0.086 Retroperitoneal perforation (%) 7/12 (58.3%) 8/11 (72.7%) 0.191 Mean time of hospitalization (days; range) 4.1 [3-5] 15.2 [13-18] 0.0123 Size of perforation (mm; %)  5-10 8/12 (66.7) 6/11 (54.6%) NS  10-20 3/12 (25%) 4/11 (36.3%) NS  >20 1/12 (8.3%) 1/11 (9.1%) NS Technical procedure SEMS + clips = 12 Hepaticojejunostomy = 4/11 (36.3%) Suture of perfuration = 4/11 (36.3%) Duodenal suture = 3/11 (27.2%) — Complications

(%) Retroperitoneal abscess: 1/12 (8.3%) Fever: 3/12 (25%) Death: 1/12 (8.3%) Abscess: 1/11 (9.1%) Deiscense this website anastomosis: 1/11 (9.1%) Wound infeccion: 1/11 (9.1%) NS Mean total cost (U\$) 14,700 ± 2835 19,872 ± 2,587 0.0103 Full-size table Table options View in workspace Download as CSV “
“Recently we reported Roflumilast on the feasibility and safety of transenteric drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts and gallbladders using a newly developed lumenal apposition device (GIE 2012). We now report on the first clinical experience of creation of a transenteric

choledochoduodenostomy using the Lumenal Apposition Device (LAD). To evaluate the feasibility and, safety of transenteric biliary drainage using the LAD for palliation of obstructive jaundice. The LAD consists of braided nitinol heat-set into a dual flange configuration. Fully expanded, the stent diameter and length measure 6 mm and 8 mm, respectively. The flange diameter is 14 mm. The LAD is constrained within a 10 Fr delivery catheter. In 8 patients (3 male, mean age 61.1, range 62-99) with distal biliary obstruction and jaundice due to 4 pancreatic cancers, 3 ampullary cancers, and 1 distal bile duct cancer, the LAD was placed using a 3.7 mm channel curved array echoendoscope (Olympus). The bile duct was punctured with a 19G FNA needle under endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) guidance and a guidewire inserted. The fistula tract was primed for LAD placement with a bougie catheter and/or cautery needle and/or 4 mm non-compliant balloon. The LAD was deployed under combined EUS and endoscopic guidance. After deployment, the LAD lumen was dilated with a non-compliant balloon catheter to 6 mm to optimize drainage when indicated. Naso-biliary catheters were placed across the LAD for irrigation at the discretion of the endoscopist.

The MTHFR rs1801133 (c.677C>T) is the most intensively investigated variant in the homocysteine/folate pathway [11, 14, 65]. However, results of the MTHFR rs1801133 association in different CL/P populations are inconsistent ( Fig. 2), indicating the challenges of researching gene-disease associations [14]. Both fetal and maternal genetic susceptibilities may affect the intrauterine environment during palatogenesis. We found no association between maternal, as well as

embryonic, MTHFR rs1801133, and MTHFD1 (gene encoding trifunctional enzyme methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase 1) rs2236225 (c.1958G>A) KU-55933 chemical structure and CL/P risk [24, 32]. Maternal RFC1 (reduced folate carrier 1) rs1051266 (c80A>G) and embryonic MTR rs1805087 (c.2756A>G), MTRR (methionine synthase reductase) rs1801394, CBS 844ins68, TCN2 (transporter transcobalamin II) rs1801198 were not correlated with CL/P

Selleck LY294002 susceptibility in the Polish population [23, 31]. Genetic processes that alter gene function without structural DNA alternation have become one of the chief focus areas of developmental medicine. Recently, there has been increased interest in epistasis and its influence on congenital anomalies in general. The nonparametric and genetic model-free Multifactor Dimensionality Reduction (MDR) analysis revealed a significant interactive effect of investigated SNPs in embryonic genes encoding enzymes involved in one carbon metabolism on clefting susceptibility (i.e. MTHFR rs1801133, MTR rs1805087, and PEMT/phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase/rs4646406 – a testing balance accuracy of 0.62 and a cross-validation consistency of 6/10, p=0.02) [31]. Even in the absence of an independent effect on CL/P risk in the Polish population,

the presence of the MTHFR rs1801133 may result in an increased CL/P risk. Studies using a variety of approaches have produced conflicting or inconclusive results on the MTHFR rs1801133 in clefting susceptibility, possibly because of the diversity of the investigated populations or the inadequate power of the studies. It is especially noteworthy that Polish mothers homozygous (GG) or heterozygous (AG) for IMP dehydrogenase the top-SNP of MTR, rs1805087, displayed a twofold increased risk of having a child with CL/P (ORAG+GGvsAA=2.19, 95%CI=1.19–4.05, p=0.01) [23]. Interestingly, maternal genotypes that include the G allele have also been associated with an increased risk of neural tube defects and conotruncal heart defects [66, 67]. Methionine synthase, encoded by MTR, is a vitamin B12-dependent enzyme that functions within the transmethylation cycle by catalyzing the 5-methyltetrahydrofolate-dependent remethylation of homocysteine to methionine.

Metal ions such as GaIII, AllII, FeIII are known to bind phosphate in an nonionic Selleck DAPT manner (Porath et al., 1975). In the case of IMAP, the fluorescently labeled peptide forms a complex with metal-chelated nanoparticles that is easily measured using FP. As well, iron chelates have been employed to bind phosphorylated peptides labeled with fluorescein which results in quenching of the fluorescein fluorescence (“Iron Quench”, or IQ technology) (Morgan et al., 2004). The limitation of FP based-detection is that the polypeptide product must be <10,000 MW when fluorescent labels with typical lifetimes are used, which will prevent the use of full length physiological substrates. However, IMAP has been adapted to FRET based

systems where size

limitations on the polypeptide substrate are less restrictive, although the distance between the donor and acceptor fluorophores must be within 10 nm for Förster resonance energy transfer to occur (Klumpp et al., 2006). A convenient alternative to IMAP that has been applied to both kinases and phosphatases is to use polyarginine instead of IMAP beads. Nikiforov and Simeonov (2003) explored assays based ABT-263 mw on the change of two charge units in a peptide upon addition/removal of a phosphate group. In the assay, the negative charge shift results in a change in peptide affinity towards an oppositely-charged arginine homopolymer. With proper adjustment of the ionic strength and optimization of assay conditions even systems such as that of LAR phosphatase, where the substrate Fl-DADE(pY)L-CONH2 carries a net charge of −7 while its dephosphorylation product is −5 charged, can be monitored by this approach. A hybrid system that employs both a coupling enzyme and sometimes mafosfamide an antibody is represented by enzyme fragment complementation (EFC; HitHunter™, DiscoveRx) technology. In one example, β-galactosidase is split to create a so-called enzyme acceptor (EA) fragment and an enzyme donor (ED) peptide (approximately 4 kDa) (Eglen, 2002 and Eglen and Singh, 2003). To construct a kinase assay, the ED peptide is synthesized to contain a phosphorlyated peptide sequence so that a competitive immunoassay

is set up using antibodies that are highly specific for the phosphorylated peptide. Production of unlabeled phosphorylated peptide by the kinase frees the ED-labeled phosphorylated peptide from the antibody allowing reconstruction of active β-galactosidase which is then detected. Another technique without the size limitations of FP that has been applied to kinases is AlphaScreen (Burns et al., 2006). AlphaScreen employs 250 nm diameter beads containing chemiluminescent reagents to create donor and acceptor beads (Ullman et al., 1994). Irradiating the donor bead with a high intensity laser emitting light at 680 nm excites a photosensitizer in the beads which results in conversion of ambient oxygen to singlet oxygen. A large amount of singlet oxygen is produced (60,000 molecules/s) resulting in large signal amplification.

The upshot was, as in Kuliński & Pempkowiak (2011), that the net CO2 emissions to the atmosphere were calculated at 1.36 ± 1.71 Tg C yr− 1. The mean CO2 emission was –3.5 g C m− 2 yr− 1 (–12.9 g CO2 m− 2 yr− 1). Thus, the Baltic Sea’s status as a source of CO2 to the atmosphere was confirmed. Moreover, when the SGD carbon loads are added to the Baltic carbon budget, the status of the sea defined to date as ‘marginally heterotrophic’ becomes minimally, yet definitely heterotrophic. The projected estimates of dissolved carbon input into the Baltic Sea via SGD should draw attention to the significance of SGD in hydrological carbon cycles. The projections demonstrate

that SGD sites may transport substantial loads of carbon to coastal areas. One immediate consequence of this is a change selleck screening library in the biodiversity in seepage-affected areas (Liu et al., 2012 and Kotwicki et al., 2013). The global carbon cycle involves processes among the major global reservoirs of this element: the atmosphere, ocean and land. The fundamental carrier in carbon cycling is CO2. Ocean carbonate chemistry

has a great impact on CO2 partial pressure in the atmosphere. So far, no carbon fluxes via SGD to the World Ocean have been considered in the global carbon cycle. As indicated, however, the SGD-derived carbon load constitutes a significant portion of the carbon budget in entire coastal basins (Table 2). Moreover, it has been estimated that the total flux of SGD to the Atlantic Ocean is comparable in volume to the riverine flux (Moore 2010). Hence,

in Epigenetics Compound Library chemical structure order to establish the order of magnitude of the SGD derived carbon load, we attempted to Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase calculate carbon fluxes via SGD to the World Ocean. Global SGD rates and dissolved carbon concentrations are required for this purpose. There are few reports on carbon concentrations in groundwater impacted areas (Cai et al., 2003, Moore et al., 2006 and Liu et al., 2012) (Table 2) and few on global groundwater discharges (Zektser and Loaiciga, 1993, Zekster et al., 2007 and Moore, 2010) (Table 3). Since the carbon concentrations obtained in this study are comparable to those in other study areas (Table 2), we decided to use the DIC and DOC concentrations measured in this study and literature derived SGDs to the World Ocean to establish the load of carbon that might enter the marine environment with SGD (Table 3). The calculated carbon fluxes are in the following ranges: (142–838) × 103 kt C yr− 1 (DIC) and (13–75) × 103 kt C yr− 1 (DOC). Reports define the carbon load delivered to the sea with river run-off with much better precision – see Table 3 (Ludwig 1996, Hen et al. 2003, Emerson & Hedges 2008). It follows from the data in Table 3 that the SGD-derived carbon load and the carbon load delivered with riverine discharge are comparable.