Therefore, the role of the RING-finger peroxins in meiosis is not conserved in filamentous ascomycetes. Peroxisomes are organelles found in eukaryotic cells and contain a variety of proteins, including enzymes for the β-oxidation of fatty acids and, often, the glyoxylate cycle (reviewed in Platta & Erdmann, 2007). Nuclear-encoded proteins are transported across the peroxisomal membrane

selleckchem into the matrix. There are two predominant classes of peroxisomal targeting sequences (PTSs) that determine matrix targeting – a C-terminal tripeptide (PTS1) present in the majority of proteins targeted to peroxisomes (Brocard & Hartig, 2006) and a less common PTS2 N-terminal sequence (Petriv et al., 2004). Proteins called peroxins, encoded by pex genes, are required

for the biogenesis and proliferation of peroxisomes and for the import of matrix proteins. Genome sequencing has shown that fungal peroxins are conserved across eukaryotic phyla (Kiel et al., 2006; Kiel & van der Klei, www.selleckchem.com/products/PF-2341066.html 2009). Many peroxins are peroxisomal membrane proteins (PMPs) while others are soluble cycling receptors that recognize proteins resulting in import. Pex5 is the specific receptor for the import of PTS1 proteins, while Pex7/Pex20 comprise the receptor for PTS2 proteins. After docking at the membrane and release of cargo proteins into the peroxisome, Pex5 and Pex7 receptors must be recycled to the cytoplasm by specific peroxins such as Pex1 and Pex6. A large complex of PMPs forms the importomer required for the import of all matrix proteins (Rayapuram & Subramani, 2006). These include Pex14 and Pex13, which form the docking complex that interacts with Pex5 and Pex7, and also include the RING-finger complex proteins, Pex2, Pex10 and Pex12. In the fungus Podospora anserina, a heterothallic Sordariomycete, it why has been found that loss-of-function mutations in the genes encoding the RING-finger peroxins result in an inability to grow on oleic acid as the carbon source and no import of PTS1- or PTS2-containing proteins. However, an additional phenotype is observed.

In homozygous crosses with deletions of pex2, pex10 or pex12, no meiotic spores (ascospores) are produced due to a complete absence of meiosis resulting from a block at the dikaryotic stage (Berteaux-Lecellier et al., 1995; Peraza-Reyes et al., 2008). It appears that this phenotype is not correlated with a loss of protein import because homozygous crosses with pex5 pex7 double deletion strains, lacking both PTS1 and PTS2 receptors, are capable of meiosis (Bonnet et al., 2006). Therefore, a specific role for the RING-finger complex, independent of peroxisome function, has been suggested (Peraza-Reyes et al., 2008). We have studied pex mutants in Aspergillus nidulans (Hynes et al., 2008). This species is in the class Eurotiomycetes and differs from the Sordariomycete P.

While retaining HIV-infected patients in medical care has been shown

to be associated with improved health outcomes, data from industrial [8] and developing countries [27] have shown that there are difficulties in patient retention. In our study, the rate of LTFU was 3.76 (95% CI 3.58–3.95)/100 py, which is similar to the 3.72 (95% CI 3.58–3.86)/100 py reported by the EuroSIDA study group [10]. In the SHCS, people originating from regions other than northwestern countries were at risk for LTFU, as shown in the French Hospital Database [11]. Although demographically similar to southeastern Asians, in the present study sub-Saharan Africans had a disproportionally high LTFU. In research on sub-Saharan Africans at one of the SHCS centres [4], it was found that the majority of those who had left the country had been denied asylum. An uncertain legal situation, with the risk

of deportation through MK0683 the asylum process, which has also been described in other countries, is likely to contribute to LTFU [28]. Older participants had a better retention rate, which is in accordance with other recent data [10,11,29]. Older age may be a proxy for less mobility and more comorbidity. Although a large proportion of participants with IDU as the transmission risk in Switzerland have stopped injecting drugs [30], IDU remains an important and independent risk factor for LTFU [10,11,29]. People with a higher baseline CD4 cell count or who were treatment-naïve were more prone NVP-BEZ235 supplier to LTFU, a finding in congruence with research from France [29]. However, using time-updated CD4 cell counts for multivariable analyses, it was found that participants more likely to be lost to follow-up were those with lower latest CD4 cell counts. This has been observed in other cohort studies [10,29] in which time-updated CD4 cell counts were applied. Some of these patients may have been less adherent to treatment, or they may have died without documentation in the cohort database. Immigrants

were less likely to participate in the SHCS, with people from sub-Saharan Africa having the greatest probability of nonparticipation. Participating in the SHCS implies written informed consent. Concerns about disclosure Neratinib in vivo could discourage sub-Saharan Africans from signing. Compared with other European countries with high numbers of immigrants, Switzerland has small, fractured immigrant groups that are divided by the barriers of the country’s four different language regions. If immigrants rely on a small community of fellow nationals for support, they might be more inclined to avoid disclosure, fearing to risk their social status [31]. Among sub-Saharan Africans, men were the most vulnerable group for cohort nonparticipation. This is consistent with findings from African countries showing that men access ART less frequently and at a more advanced stage of HIV infection compared with women [32,33].

Although higher rates of rash-associated hepatotoxicity were observed among Thai women, other studies have also observed high rates of nevirapine-associated rash in Thailand [44]. Thirdly, we do not have data on exposure to other hepatotoxins (e.g. alcohol and chronic aflatoxin exposure find more [36,45]). Fourthly, few women (n=7) in this study had CD4 counts ≥350 cells/μL and therefore these findings cannot necessarily be extrapolated to women with higher (≥350 cells/μL) CD4 counts. Finally, we have not evaluated whether chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) coinfection might have augmented or confounded

the associations we observed between abnormal baseline serum transaminases and risk of hepatitis after initiating nevirapine. Although the presence of HBV surface antigen alone has not been associated with increased risk of hepatotoxicity [46], HBV DNA levels >2000 copies/mL have been found among persons taking antiretrovirals [47]. In summary, severe hepatotoxicity and rash-associated hepatotoxicity occurred in 3–5% of women in three resource-limited settings during the first 24 weeks after initiating therapy with check details nevirapine-based ART. Risk for both outcomes was predicted by abnormal baseline transaminase levels but not by a CD4 count ≥250 cells/μL. Although we observed alterations in the risk of rash-associated hepatotoxicity by CD4 count, risk was equivalently elevated at CD4 counts <50 and ≥200 cells/μL. In resource-limited settings where transaminase

testing is available, laboratory evaluation for hepatotoxicity should focus on women with baseline transaminase abnormalities regardless of CD4 cell count and on early time-points after nevirapine initiation. In addition, clinical vigilance and patient education to minimize concomitant exposure to nevirapine

new and other hepatotoxins should be emphasized. Clinicians and public health officials should be aware that limiting nevirapine use to women with a CD4 count <250 cells/μL may not limit the frequency of nevirapine-associated hepatotoxicity events but may reduce treatment options unnecessarily. This publication was made possible by support from the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), from the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Global AIDS Program and from the Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, CDC. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the CDC. Conflict of interest None of the authors reports a conflict of interest. Funding In Zambia, this study was supported by grant U62/CCU12354 from the US CDC, with complementary funding from the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). In Thailand, this study was supported by the US CDC through purchase orders #Bangkok-07-M-0424 to the Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University and #Bangkok-07-M-0425 to Rajavithi Hospital.

“
“Crucell – Johnson and Johnson, Leiden, The Netherlands Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) is a Gram-negative microbe that frequently colonizes the human host without obvious signs of inflammation, but is also a frequent cause of otitis media in children and exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Accumulating data suggest that NTHi can reside in biofilms during both colonization and infection. Recent literature proposes

roles for phosphorylcholine, sialic acid, bacterial DNA, but also eukaryotic DNA in the development of NTHi biofilms. However, many questions remain. Until now, there are insufficient data GSK458 concentration to explain how NTHi forms biofilms. Here, we review the recent advances IDO inhibitor in NTHi biofilm formation with particular focus on the role that neutrophils may play in this process. We propose that recruitment of neutrophils facilitates NTHi biofilm formation on mucosal sites by the initiation

of neutrophil extracellular traps. “
“Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) are bacteria associated with extraintestinal diseases in poultry. A method to generate markerless deletions of APEC genome is described. Lambda Red recombination is used to introduce a LoxP cassette (loxP-rpsL-neo-loxP) containing the rpsL gene for streptomycin sensitivity and the neo gene for kanamycin/neomycin resistance into the APEC genome, with attendant deletion of a desired chromosomal gene. The loxP sites are incorporated into primers used to amplify the rpsL-neo marker during the construction of the LoxP cassette, making the method rapid and efficient. The cassette is specifically integrated into the fiu gene or intergenic region 2051-52, and the Cre/lox system is used to remove the marker, hence deletion of the drug-resistance genes. The results demonstrate Beta adrenergic receptor kinase that the Cre/lox system

can successfully be used to generate markerless deletions in APEC, and rpsL counter-selection can be used to select the deletions so that one does not have to pick and test to find the desired product. Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) are extraintestinal E. coli that cause systemic disease in poultry, collectively known as avian colibacillosis and associated with major economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide (Dho-Moulin & Fairbrother, 1999; Dziva & Stevens, 2008). Availability of experimental infection models in target hosts and the recently available complete genome sequence of APEC O1:K1:H7 (Johnson et al., 2007) provides the basis for comprehensive understanding of the organism’s pathogenesis (Dziva & Stevens, 2008). Together with several gene manipulations such as site-directed mutagenesis, construction of strains with mutations in chromosomal genes remains the ‘gold standard’ for many functional genomic analyses (Gerlach et al., 2009). Deletions in the E. coli genome using the Cre/lox system have been reported (Yoon et al., 1998; Fukiya et al., 2004).

However, pre-travel preparation of tourists to a moderate altitude destination like Cusco is inadequate

with underutilization of health services, inadequate counseling, and limited use of acetazolamide. AMS was common among study participants and had a big impact on travel plans. Few of those even with severe symptoms sought professional health care. Further research on determinants of pre-travel and local health care services use is needed. Also, it is paramount to raise awareness about the potentially fatal consequences of traveling to moderate and high altitudes without adequate preparation. This should be raised among counseling physicians and among travelers at risk. The authors state they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“In our recent editorial we discussed the difficulties related

to the prevention of malaria in international pediatric travelers, MDV3100 in general, and in pediatric PCI-32765 in vitro travelers visiting friends and relatives specifically.1 We highlighted many travel medicine logistical obstacles that result in significant risk for children who travel to malaria-endemic regions. A pivotal need when traveling to a high risk malaria-endemic area is to have a safe, efficacious, and acceptable prophylactic antimalarial drug. If parents are required to sign a special consent form before the prescription for an antimalarial can be issued, this will complicate procedures and will hinder the acceptance and adherence to the drug regimen. We would like to thank Drs Takeshita and Kanagawa for sharing, with us, this important reality of pretravel

care for children in Japan.2 It is noteworthy that the Pediatrics Interest Group within the International Society of Travel Medicine was just constituted and met at the recent CISTM meeting in Boston for the first time.3 It is our hope that this renewed focus on pediatric travel medicine will help advocate for an improved and easy access of children to competent pretravel care and efficacious antimalarial drugs for prophylaxis. Stefan Hagmann *† and Patricia Schlagenhauf “
“An estimated 1 billion people will travel internationally in 2012,[1] some of whom are immunocompromised hosts through and who are more vulnerable to infection and subsequent complications, including those with cancer, human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome, organ transplant recipients, or those on immunosuppressive drugs for autoimmune disorders. Little is known about the risks of travel in immunocompromised hosts. There are a handful of descriptive studies on travel medicine in organ transplant[2-4] and splenectomized[5] patients, although larger studies are yet to be done. Mikati and colleagues[6] describe the first retrospective cohort study of cancer patients who presented for pre-travel health advice at a single center over an 8-year span.

, 1998; Thurnheer

et al., 2004; Guggenheim et al., 2009). The biofilms were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (Sigma) for 1 h at 4 °C and washed once with PBS. Thereafter, the biofilm-associated microorganisms were permeabilized by exposure to lysozyme (Sigma; 70 000 U mL−1) for 2 min at room temperature and rinsed with physiological saline. FISH was carried out using a modification of a method previously described (Thurnheer et al., 2004). The biofilms were pre-incubated for 15 min at 48 °C in final hybridization buffer (0.9 M NaCl, 20 mM L−1 Tris–HCl Oligomycin A molecular weight pH 7.5, 0.01% SDS) containing 30% formamide and then placed for 3 h at 48 °C in the same solution with the oligonucleotide probes added (5 μg mL−1 for STR405 and LNA-Pging, 15 μg mL−1 for FUS664). After hybridization, the biofilms were immersed for 15 min at 48 °C in washing buffer (102 mM L−1 NaCl, 20 mM L−1 Tris–HCl 7.5, 5 mM L−1 EDTA, 0.01% SDS). Thereafter, the disks were embedded upside-down in 10 μL Mowiol mounting solution and stored at room temperature in the dark at least 6 h. Biofilms were examined using a Leica SP5® microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) fitted with

three lasers: He-Ne, argon and DPSS. Filters were set to 490–530 nm for FAM, 570–610 nm for Cy3, and 650–730 nm for Cy5. The fluorescence signal from Nutlin-3a research buy Cy5 was assigned to blue color for better differentiation from Cy3. Confocal images were obtained using a 63× (numeric aperture 1.4) oil immersion objective. Each biofilm was scanned at three random positions at the center of the disk. Z-direction series were generated by vertical optical sectioning at every position with the thickness of the slices set to 0.3 μm.

Proprietary Leica confocal software was used to acquire digital images of 1024 × 1024 pixels in size that were the average of 32 Etofibrate frames. The counts of the bacteria in the biofilm were made using image analysis software (Olympus AG, Volketswil, Switzerland) and verified manually on random views to exclude possible errors due to not counting bacteria present in bundles. The experiment was repeated twice, resulting in six disks that were scanned at three random position in the central area. Three milliliters of Columbia agar (BBL™; Becton Dickinson) supplemented with 5% human blood (Blutspendezentrum), 5 μg mL−1 hemin (Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland), and 0.5 μg mL−1 menadione (VWR International, Dietikon, Switzerland) were placed in sterile IMC ampoules and incubated anaerobically for 48 h. Specimens with the biofilms were placed in ampoules, enabling continuous contact between the biofilm and the agar. A sterile titanium disk with no biofilm on it served as the negative control. Each of the ampoules was immediately sealed under anaerobic conditions and inserted into one of the individual microcalorimeters in the 48-microcalorimeter instrument used (TAM 48®; TA Instruments, New Castle, DE).

3%). On average, there were six (SD ± 3.52) deaths of foreign nationals registered at Chiang Mai City each month. The median age of death among foreign nationals was 64 years (range 14–102 y). click here The highest number of deaths was among the 60 to 69 years age group (n = 30 deaths, 29.4%) followed

by 50 to 59 years (17.6%), 70 to 79 years (16.7%), and over 80 years (16.7%) (Table 1). (%) The female-to-male ratio of death among non-Thai nationals was 1 to 5.4. The region of residence and nationalities of the decedents is shown in Table 2. The largest number of deaths were among travelers from Europe (46 deaths; 45.1%), followed by North America (28 deaths; 27.5%), Asia (18 deaths; 17.7%), and Australia and Oceania (9 deaths; 8.8%). Among Europeans, the main countries of residence included the UK (11 deaths; 23.9%) and Germany (9 deaths; 19.6%). Among North American visitors, the United States had the largest number of deaths in Chiang Mai City (25 deaths; 89.3%). For Australia and Oceania, Australia had the highest number of deaths (8 deaths; 88.9%). For Asia, there were 8 deaths (44.4%) of Japanese and 6 deaths (33.3%) of Chinese visitors. Deaths from medical illnesses were predominant for all age groups, accounting for 89.2% of all deaths. Table 3 shows that medical illnesses were the

main cause of death among all foreign nationals. The unnatural CX-4945 deaths were relatively high among Europeans compared with other regions (p = 0.538). Suicide and drug abuse-related deaths were highest among Australia and Oceania compared with other regions (p < 0.001). Figure 2 characterizes the cause-specific deaths among foreign nationals in Chiang Mai City. Cardiovascular disease was the most common cause of death among foreign nationals (36 cases; PMR = 35.3), followed by malignant neoplasms (20 cases; PMR = 19.6), infections (12 cases; PMR = 11.8), and cerebrovascular disease (6 cases; PMR = 5.9). Lung infection and sepsis were the

most common cause of death from infections. Selleckchem Palbociclib Among the deaths that were classified as unnatural causes, there were four accidental deaths (PMR = 3.9), four suicides (PMR = 3.9), two cases of drug overdose (PMR = 2.0), and one case of drowning (PMR = 1.0). There was no record of homicide during the study period. As shown in Table 4, all of the expected deaths of foreign nationals, based on different standard population death rates, are greater than the observed number of deaths among foreign nationals in Chiang Mai City. The SMRs range between 0.15 and 0.30 (Table 5). The distribution of mortality among foreign travelers by age and gender shows a similar pattern with the studies conducted in Canada,[23, 24] the United States,[25, 26] and Australia.[27] The study reveals that mortality distribution was predominant in older persons (≥50 y). This finding might be as a result of the large number of senior foreign nationals aged 50 years and above who reside in Thailand.

The term ‘bacterial cytokine’ was coined by Mukamolova et al. (1998) for the resuscitation-promoting factor (Rpf), a protein that revived dormant Micrococcus luteus cells and increased the growth rate of vegetative cells. Rpf also stimulated the growth of other members of the Actinobacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and a family of related growth factors was identified (Kell & Young, 2000). A family of proteins with a similar function in the Firmicutes was subsequently discovered (Ravagnani et al., 2005). Rpf was later demonstrated to have a lysozyme-like structure and muralytic

activity (Cohen-Gonsaud et al., 2005). How Rpf stimulates the growth of dormant see more cells remains to be determined, but it is possible that remodelling of the peptidoglycan in the cell walls of dormant cells is required before growth can resume. Interestingly, it has been demonstrated recently that peptidoglycan fragments bind to PrkC, a serine/threonine protein kinase, in Bacillus subtilis to stimulate spore germination (Shah et al., 2008). Muropeptides generated by Rpf degradation of peptidoglycan may selleck chemicals interact with PknB, a homologue of PrkC in M. tuberculosis, and thereby initiate resuscitation and stimulate growth (Kana & Mizrahi, 2009). Signalling molecules present only within the natural habitat are thought to be essential for the growth of many bacteria (Lewis, 2007; Nichols et al., 2008).

In the absence of these beneficial interactions and signals, some bacteria may struggle to grow in monoculture. Furthermore, faced with an unfamiliar environment devoid of essential factors, bacteria may, as a survival strategy, enter into a temporary state of low metabolic activity accompanied by the inability to proliferate or

to form colonies on culture media (Barcina et al., 1990; Colwell, 2000; Lewis, 2007; Nichols FER et al., 2008), which may be mistaken for a constitutional resistance to culture. Significant efforts have been made in recent years to devise culturing methods for as-yet-uncultivated species. Developments in the last decade, particularly in the field of environmental microbiology, have led to the recovery of unculturables from diversely populated habitats including soil and aquatic (marine and freshwater) environments. The majority of culture media used to date have been nutrient-rich. It is now thought that these conditions may favour the growth of faster-growing bacteria at the expense of slow-growing species, some of which thrive in nutrient-poor environments (Koch, 1997; Connon & Giovannoni, 2002), and may be inhibited by substrate-rich conventional media. Consequently, the use of dilute nutrient media has led to the successful cultivation of previously unculturable bacteria from various aquatic and terrestrial habitats (Watve et al., 2000; Connon & Giovannoni, 2002; Rappe et al., 2002; Zengler et al., 2002).

2,3 Scabies, an infestation by the itch or scabies mite, Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis, remains a major public health problem worldwide and a common cause of PUO selleck screening library in returning travelers. 3,4 The worldwide prevalence of scabies has been estimated to be about 300 million cases/y. 4 Although more often associated with crowding, homelessness, institutionalization, and immunodeficiency, scabies occurs worldwide in both sexes, at all ages, and among all ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Scabies mites cannot jump or fly, but can crawl at a rate of 2.5 cm/min on warm, moist skin. 1,4 They

can survive in the natural environment for 24 to 36 hours at

room temperature and at average humidity, and remain capable of infesting humans. 5 Scabies is most easily transmitted by close skin-to-skin contact, such as between sex partners. The more the mites on a human host, the greater the risks of transmission by close direct contact, more so than by indirect contact with fomites, such as shared bedding and clothing. 4 Scabies mites have not been demonstrated to transmit HIV, HTLV-1, or any other infectious agent. 4 The human scabies mite is an obligate ectoparasite and must complete its entire life cycle on its human hosts, as females burrow intradermally to lay eggs

and larvae emerge and mature to reinfest the same or new hosts. Female Ion Channel Ligand Library mites burrow preferentially into thinner areas of the epidermis by dissolving the stratum corneum with proteolytic secretions to penetrate to the stratum granulosum. Female mites then lay their eggs at the end of tunneled burrows 5 to 10 mm long, and larvae hatch 2 to 3 days after eggs are laid. The entire incubation period from eggs to full grown mites lasts about 14 to 15 days. 6 The human incubation period Succinyl-CoA from initial infestation to symptom development is 3 to 6 weeks in initial infestations and as short as 1 to 3 days in reinfestations as a result of prior sensitization to mite antigens. 4 Classical or typical scabies presents as generalized, intense nocturnal itching in a characteristic topographical distribution because 10 to 15 fertile female mites are transferred from infected patients to new hosts. The more significant, intensely pruritic skin eruptions in reinfestations and atypical scabies are considered as consequences of both anamnestic hypersensitivity reactions to mite antigens and self-inflicted scratching.

5; Fig. S4 in Appendix S1). We studied the impact of ferrihydrite, manganese dioxide, nitrate and sulfate Entinostat clinical trial on hydrocarbon-dependent methanogenesis. Ferrihydrite accelerated hexadecane-dependent methanogenesis compared with sulfate or nitrate. Nitrate almost completely inhibited methanogenesis from

hexadecane and ethylbenzene (Figs 2 and 3a). This is not surprising because nitrate is a well-known inhibitor of methanogenesis (Klüber & Conrad, 1998). Furthermore, nitrate and high sulfate concentrations negatively influenced the conversion rates of hexadecane to methane (Figs 2 and 3a). However, in the presence of 2 mM sulfate, nitrate was not inhibitory (Fig. 3a), indicating that a sulfate-reducing hexadecane-degrading community prevailed. Bleomycin ic50 Adding sulfate in concentrations up to 5 mM to the sediment microcosms of Eckernförde Bay resulted in a significant increase of hexadecane-dependent methanogenesis (Fig. 3b). In contrast, concentrations higher than 5 mM strongly inhibited hexadecane-dependent methanogenesis. Possibly, sulfate addition stimulated the growth of new or other sulfate reducers, dominating substrate competition for intermediates with methanogens. In contrast, a previous study reported no inhibition of methanogenesis

by sulfate of up to 10 mM (Gieg et al., 2008). The inhibitory effect of 22 mM sulfate on ethylbenzene-dependent methanogenesis was less pronounced compared with hexadecane. For naphthalene, neither the inhibition nor the stimulation of methanogenesis was found with either electron acceptor (Fig. 4 and Table 1). This agrees with a recent study of contaminated sediments, where no stimulating effect of Fe(III) on PAH degradation was observed (Li et al., 2010). The impact of

electron acceptors on hydrocarbon-dependent methanogenesis demonstrates that (1) the concentration of the added electron acceptor is crucial for hexadecane-fed Phosphoprotein phosphatase methanogenesis and (2) the solubility of the electron acceptor appears to be important. Indeed, insoluble electron acceptors such as ferrihydrite or manganese dioxide had a stimulating effect on hexadecane-dependent methanogenesis (Fig. 2a). However, these electron acceptors are only locally bioavailable, which may result in microscale compartment formation. In contrast, theoretically possible products of hexadecane degradation, such as carbonate, acetate and H2, can freely diffuse and become available for methanogens in niches where other electron acceptors are depleted. In Zeebrugge microcosms, the observed increase of the total archaeal community and mcrA gene copies suggests that especially Methanosarcina species account for iron reduction as demonstrated by van Bodegom et al. (2004) (Fig. 5 and Supporting Information). Moreover, neither ferrihydrite or sulfate nor hexadecane or methane addition triggered the growth of Geobacteraceae. In conclusion, members of this family are probably less important for the respective processes (Fig. 5).